HIRUP

HIRUP
mulih ka jati, mulang ka asal

Minggu, 12 November 2017



Peupeujeuh



Mugi urang masing emut
Hiji mangsa bakal maot
Aya alam sanggeus maot
Katelah alam akherat

Kudu mawa bekel ka akherat
Lain banda  lain pangkat
Nu pasti bekel ibadat
Utamana ibadah sholat

Sholat anu lima waktu
Tugas muslim anu tangtu
Lakonan kalayan tuhu
Dibarung ku hate khusyu


Najan bari nahan tunduh
Laksanakeun sholat subuh
Omat ulah gurung gusuh
Bilih henteu kengeng buruh

Lohor mah opat rokaat
Lakonan omat tong telat
Sing khusyu salila sholat
Poma pisan ulah ebat

Nalika wanci geus sore
Omat ulah sok talangke
Sholat asar prak pigawe
Najan cape tos digawe

Panon poe tunggang gunung
Lebah kulon hibar layung
Enggal eling ka Nu Agung
Sholat maghrib tong dilangkung

Nalika waktu geus Isya
Lakonan sholat sing daria
Nyembah Alloh Anu Kawasa
Sangkan dihampura dosa

Lamun urang hayang bagja
Di dunya jeung akherat jaga
Bekel anu kudu dibawa
Iman Islam reujeung Takwa


Iman sanes ngan pangakuan
Kudu luyu jeung patekadan
Diwujudkeun na kalakuan
Eta kasampurnaan Iman

Islam sanes ngan pangakuan
Kudu luyu jeung kalakuan
Pasrah sumerah kana aturan
Nu ditangtukeun ku Pangeran

Parentah Alloh lakonan
Panyarekna jarauhan
Eta bukti katakwaan
Jadi sumber kabagjaan

Urang kudu pinter syukur
Sangkan  nikmat tambah subur
Sabab lamun urang kufur
Azab Alloh pasti lungsur

Syukur tina kanikmatan
Nikmat Islam nikmat Iman
Sarta nikmat kasehatan
Sakabeh berkah Pangeran

Lamun lampah remen lepat
Kudu rikat geuwat tobat
Eureunan lampah maksiat
Samemeh urang sakarat

Lamun hirup loba dosa
Buru-buru kudu rumasa
Menta hampura ka manusa
Sarta tobat ka Nu Kawasa

Hirup dikuntit ku pati
Mangka kudu ati-ati
Ibadah masing gumati
Malar dipikarido Gusti

Omat ulah sok takabur
Bedegong ka Alloh kufur
Inget awak urang sakujur

Hiji mangsa bakal dikubur

Science and the Qur'an

Insights into the source of the Qur'an. . . based on scientific discoveries since 1998

In recent years, Muslims have begun to proclaim that the Qur'an contains scientific observations only discovered in the 20th and 21st centuries. For example, Muslims (in the 21st century) now believe that the Qur'an reveals that the universe will expand to a limit, stop its expansion, then collapse into itself. Several Qur'anic verses are used to support this Islamic view of the universe. Below are modern translations of the Qur'an found on the Internet on some Islamic websites. These Islamic web sites describe both the expanding universe and the collapse of the universe. Let's begin with the expanding universe interpretation of the Qur'an.
"...We have constructed the heaven with might, and verily, it is We who are steadily expanding it.... " (Surah 51:47).
Muslims acknowledge that only English translations of the Qur'an (in the late 20th century) use the word "expanding" (click on this pop-up to review earlier English translations of the Qur'an that did not use the word "expanding" in their rendition of Surah 51:47).
Since the earlier English translations of Surah 51:47 do not use the word "expanding," it is important to acknowledge that the most recent translations are hypothetical. Therefore, it is appropriate to question the translation that uses the word, "expanding."
Nevertheless, some Muslims will insist that the Qur'an does support using the word "expanding" for translation into English. Therefore, let's assume that the Qur'an does contain the "expanding universe" as a scientific observation written into its texts. Would this verify that the Qur'an comes from God?
This is the most important question to answer with logic and available evidence. Let's begin with the method that humans have used to make scientific observations. To make scientific observations, humans simply observe, then write their observation(s) on paper. A systematic collection of observations is usually made. And as humans have become capable of making precise measurements, better conclusions can be made of the observations using applied physics and math.
Now it is true that in the 7th century, humans were not capable of knowing that the universe was expanding. We must ask, "Who would have been capable of scientific observations in the 7th century?"
To begin, scientific observations are made by created beings, not the Creator (i.e.: Allah). We can easily reason that spiritual beings of all types would be capable of scientific observations of the universe. For example, a list of spiritual beings capable of scientific observations would include angels, archangels (Gabriel), demons, Satan, jinn, and others (the list could even contain spiritual beings that we don't know exist, or even ETs). Therefore, it is logical that a spiritual being could be the source of scientific observations that Muslims have only recently come to believe (hypothecate is a better word) are in the Qur'an.
Is this a good assessment? If it is true, then what does it mean?
All Muslims acknowledge that Muhammad believed that the words spoken to him duringspiritual experiences came only from the Archangel Gabriel. Therefore, Muslims accept that the Archangel Gabriel could make scientific observations of the universe. But did the Archangel Gabriel get the words from the Creator? Or was the Archangel Gabriel that spoke to Muhammad (as opposed to Daniel the prophet, who also heard from the Archangel Gabriel) a spirit that deceived Muhammad?
"The answer to "Who is Gabriel?" based on physical evidence (for example, ancient artifacts like the dead sea scrolls, ossuaries, etc...) and logic can be discovered on the "Spiritual Technology" web site by reading the entire web site analysis. A math based conclusion is possible due to physical evidence related to spiritual ideas."

The Big Crunch in the Qur'an
(Collapse of the Universe)
Modern day Muslims now believe that the Qur'an reveals that in the distant future, the universe will stop expanding due to gravity. Then the universe will collapse back to a small point (smaller than a hand) to start a new creation. Let's review the collapsing universe interpretation of the Qur'an.
"That Day We will fold up heaven like folding up the pages of a book. As We originated the first creation so We will regenerate it. It is a promise binding on Us. That is what We will do." (Surah 21:104).
This Muslim author then refers to a second Qur'anic verse that supports the universe will collapse:
"They do not measure Allah with His true measure. The whole earth will be a mere handful for Him on the Day of Rising the heavens folded up in His right hand. Glory be to Him! He is exalted above the partners they ascribe!" (Surah 39:67).
The English translation given above is very similar to earlier English translations of the Qur'an. All English translations use a similar phrase that infers the universe will roll back together like a scroll before a new creation occurs. (click on this pop-up to review earlier English translations of the Qur'an that agree the universe will collapse before a new creation is done).
Since all English translations of the Qur'an agree that the universe will be rolled back together, it appears that almost all people would agree that the Qur'an takes this position. However, the evidence of science does not support the concept that the universe will collapse. Since 1998, scientists have concluded that the universe is expanding at an accelerating rate. The universe will never collapse as recorded in the Qur'an. Consider the historic evidence supporting this conclusion that have been released to the public worldwide since 1998.
In the year 1998, after 10 years of intense research and observing distant supernova, two independent scientific teams (the Supernova Cosmology Project and the High ZSupernova Search Team Project) came to the same conclusion that the rate at which the universe is expanding is accelerating (getting bigger at a faster and ever faster rate). This idea was totally unexpected and is typically called the Accelerating Universe.
In 2002 to 2006, analysis of data collected from the NASA WMAP Satellite has permitted scientists to conclude that the universe is accelerating. Here is a quote from a NASA website with scientific conclusions. "For the theory that fits our data, the universe willexpand forever!"
The conclusion that the universe will expand forever at an accelerating rate is based on the analysis of more than 800 Cepheid Variable Stars, more than 80 Type 1A Supernova, and more than 3 years of continuous data collection from the NASA WMAP Satellite. Due to the large amount of data involved in this analysis, the conclusion that the universe will expand forever at an accelerating rate is done at a high confidence level. The probability of this conclusion being wrong due to random error is extremely small.
The previous three paragraphs with credible offsite links verify that three independent scientific teams using two independent scientific methods agree. The universe will expand forever at an accelerating rate.
However, the Qur'an proclaims that the universe will collapse. And Muslims on various Islamic web sites state that the Qur'an records that the universe will collapse. Therefore the Qur'an is in grave contradiction with scientific data as well as the conclusions of scientists. This requires us to make a very serious statement about the Qur'an and its source.
Scientific data supports that the universe will expand forever at a high confidence level. Therefore, any so-called "holy book" that claims the opposite is wrong at a high confidence level. Since the Qur'an is obviously wrong, we must ask, "Who is the source of the Qur'an?"

Gabriel Who?
(Do Muslims really know the spiritual source of the qur'an?)
Please Note: Physical evidence and logic are used on this web site to compare Gabriel's words to Daniel the prophet versus Gabriel's words to Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. Since each prophet claims to have received words from the same spiritual being (Gabriel), then the words should agree when the same subject is being presented. However, we find that the words are diametrically opposed. Therefore, simple logic requires us to conclude that either Daniel or Muhammad is without doubt a false prophet.
Based on physical evidence of the dead sea scrolls, ancient ossuaries, the Pontius Pilate inscription, and many other artifacts, the "Spiritual Technology" web site concludes that Gabriel did in fact foretell the future through Daniel the prophet at the 99% confidence level. Who then is the spiritual being that contradicts Daniel the prophet as recorded in the Qur'an through Muhammad?
People who believe Muhammad received words from Gabriel do so on complete "blind faith," even those who were direct witnesses of Muhammad's spiritual experiences. It is impossible for those present to discern the subjective nature of Muhammad's spiritual experiences.
Please Note: If you have an open mind and will take the time to study in-depth the information on this web site, you can begin to discern that Muhammad did not speak with a spiritual being capable of foretelling the future. To state this another way, only the Creator (Who exists outside the limits of time-space) can accurately and consistently foretell the future random human events. Muhammad did not achieve this necessary requirement (scientific observations recorded in a so-called "holy book" are not future random events since they are simply observations). Therefore, it is logical to ask, "Who is the spiritual being that spoke to Muhammad?"

Scientific Observations
in so-called "Holy Books"

(Discern the Source, Be Very Careful of Your Conclusion)
We can also conclude that any other so-called "holy book" that reveals scientific observations of the universe does not mean that the source is from the Creator.
On a postive note, we can conclude that scientific observations in any so-called "holy book" infers that there is a spiritual level related to the universe. In turn, this infers that a Creator did create the one and only universe that humans have observed to date.

The Archangel Gabriel
(Spoke to Daniel the Prophet)
Daniel the prophet is the only other human being (as a prophet) that claims to have spoken directly with the Archangel Gabriel. This is important since it permits us to compare the book of Daniel to the Qur'an using math (Same spiritual source should have similar view when a specific subject is being presented). And the Dead Sea Scrolls confirm that the book of Daniel has not been changed. Based on physical evidence, we can have confidence that Daniel the prophet did in fact speak with the Archangel Gabriel. Since Muhammad presents views that are diametrically opposite of those taken by Daniel (on the same subject), we can conclude that Muhammad the prophet of Islam appears to have been deceived (at a high confidence level) by a being that claimed to be the Archangel Gabriel. Who is this spiritual being?
In the near future, I will update the site to address other modern Islamic views that the Qur'an contains scientific observations (For example, Muslims believe that the Qur'an contains scientific observations related to embryology). You can book mark this page and check back as I begin to revise the Spiritual Technology web site.

INTRODUCTION
The expansion of the Universe is one of the most imposing discoveries of modern science. Today it is a firmly established concept and the only debate centers around the way this is taking place.
It was first suggested by the general theory of relativity and is backed up by physics in the examination of the galactic spectrum; the regular movement towards the red section of their spectrum may be explained by the distancing of one galaxy from another. Thus the size of the Universe is probably constantly increasing and this increase will become bigger the further away the galaxies are from us. The speeds at which these celestial bodies are moving may, in the course of this perpetual expansion, go from fractions of the speed of light to speeds faster than this.
The following verse of the Qur'an (sura 51, verse 47) where God is speaking, may perhaps be compared with modern ideas:
"The heaven, We have built it with power. Verily. We are expanding it." 'Heaven' is the translation of the word sama' and this is exactly the extra-terrestrial world that is meant. 'We are expanding it' is the translation of the plural present participle musi'una of the verb ausa'a meaning 'to make wider, more spacious, to extend, to expand'.
Some translators who were unable to grasp the meaning of the latter provide translations that appear to me to be mistaken, e.g. "we give generously" (R. Blachere). Others sense the meaning, but are afraid to commit themselves: Ramidullah in his translation of the Qur'an talks of the widening of the heavens and space, but he includes a question mark. Finally, there are those who arm themselves with authorized scientific opinion in their commentaries and give the meaning stated here. This is true in the case of the Muntakab, a book of commentaries edited by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, Cairo. It refers to the expansion of the Universe in totally unambiguous terms.

From this point of view, three verses of the Qur'an should command our full attention. One expresses, without any trace of ambiguity, what man should and will achieve in this field. In the other two, God refers for the sake of the unbelievers in Makka to the surprise they would have if they were able to raise themselves up to the Heavens; He alludes to a hypothesis which will not be realized for the latter. 1) The first of these verses is sura 55, verse 33: "O assembly of Jinns and Men, if you can penetrate regions of the heavens and the earth, then penetrate them! You will not penetrate them save with a Power."
The translation given here needs some explanatory comment:
a) The word 'if' expresses in English a condition that is dependent upon a possibility and either an achievable or an unachievable hypothesis. Arabic is a language which is able to introduce a nuance into the condition which is much more explicit. There is one word to express the possibility (ida), another for the achievable hypothesis (in) and a third for the unachievable hypothesis expressed by the word (lau). The verse in question has it as an achievable hypothesis expressed by the word (in). The Qur'an therefore suggests the material possibility of a concrete realization. This subtle linguistic distinction formally rules out the purely mystic interpretation that some people have (quite wrongly) put on this verse.
b) God is addressing the spirits (jinn) and human beings (ins), and not essentially allegorical figures.
c) 'To penetrate' is the translation of the verb nafada followed by the preposition min. According to Kazimirski's dictionary, the phrase means 'to pass right through and come out on the other side of a body' (e.g. an arrow that comes out on the other side). It therefore suggests a deep penetration and emergence at the other end into the regions in question.
d) The Power (sultan) these men will have to achieve this enterprise would seem to come from the All- Mighty.' There can be no doubt that this verse indicates the possibility men will one day achieve what we today call (perhaps rather improperly) 'the conquest of space'. One must note that the text of the Qur'an predicts not only penetration through the regions of the Heavens, but also the Earth, i.e. the exploration of its depths. 2) The other two verses are taken from sura 15, (verses 14 and 15). God is speaking of the unbelievers in Makka, as the context of this passage in the sura shows:
"Even if We opened unto them a gate to Heaven and they were to continue ascending therein, they would say: our sight is confused as in drunkenness. Nay, we are people bewitched."
The above expresses astonishment at a remarkable spectacle, different from anything man could imagine. The conditional sentence is introduced here by the word lau which expresses a hypothesis that could never be realized as far as it concerned the people mentioned in these verses.
When talking of the conquest of space therefore, we have two passages in the text of the Qur'an: one of them refers to what will one day become a reality thanks to the powers of intelligence and ingenuity God will give to man, and the other describes an event that the unbelievers in Makkah will never witness, hence its character of a condition never to be realized. The event will however be seen by others, as intimated in the first verse quoted above. It describes the human reactions to the unexpected spectacle that travelers in space will see: their confused sight, as in drunkenness, the feeling of being bewitched...
This is exactly how astronauts have experienced this remarkable adventure since the first human space flight around the world in 1961. It is known in actual fact how once one is above the Earth's atmosphere, the Heavens no longer have the azure appearance we see from Earth, which results from phenomena of absorption of the Sun's light into the layers of the atmosphere. The human observer in space above the Earth's atmosphere sees a black sky and the Earth seems to be surrounded by a halo of bluish color due to the same phenomena of absorption of light by the Earth's atmosphere. The Moon has no atmosphere, however, and therefore appears in its true colors against the black background of the sky. It is a completely new spectacle therefore that presents itself to men in space, and the photographs of this spectacle are well known to present-day man.
Here again, it is difficult not to be impressed, when comparing the text of the Qur'an to the data of modern science, by statements that simply cannot be ascribed to the thought of a man who lived more than fourteen centuries ago.

Having called modern concepts on the formation of the Universe to mind, reference was made to the evolution that took place, starting with primary nebula through to the formation of galaxies, stars and (for the solar system) the appearance of planets beginning with the Sun at a certain stage of its evolution. Modern data lead us to believe that in the solar system, and more generally in the Universe itself, this evolution is still continuing.
How can anybody who is aware of these ideas fail to make a comparison with certain statements found in the Qur'an in which the manifestations of divine Omnipotence are referred to. The Qur'an reminds us several times that: "(God) subjected the sun and the moon: each one runs its course to an appointed term."
This sentence is to be found in sura 13, verse 2; sura 31, verse 29; sura 35, verse 13 and sura 39, verse 5. In addition to this, the idea of a settled place is associate with the concept of a destination place in sura 36, verse 38: "The Sun runs its course to a settled place. This is the decree of the All Mighty, the Full of Knowledge."
'Settled place' is the translation of the word mustaqarr and there can be no doubt that the idea of an exact place is attached to it.
How do these statements fare when compared with data established by modern science?
The Qur'an gives an end to the Sun for its evolution and a destination place. It also provides the Moon with a settled place. To understand the possible meanings of these statements, we must remember what modern knowledge has to say about the evolution of the stars in general and the Sun in particular, and (by extension) the celestial bodies that automatically followed its movement through space, among them the Moon.
The Sun is a star that is roughly 4.5 billion years old, according to experts in astrophysics. It is possible to (distinguish a stage in its evolution, as one can for all the stars. At present, the Sun is at an early stage, characterized by the transformation of hydrogen atoms into helium atoms. Theoretically, this present stage should last another 5.5 billion years according to calculations that allow a total of 10 billion years for the duration of the primary stage in a star of this kind. It has already been shown, in the case of these other stars, that this stage gives way to a second period characterized by the completion of the transformation of hydrogen into helium, with the resulting expansion of its external layers and the cooling of the Sun. In the final stage, its light is greatly diminished and density considerably increased; this is to be observed in the type of star known as a 'white dwarf'.
The above dates are only of interest in as far as they give a rough estimate of the time factor involved, what is worth remembering and is really the main point of the above, is the notion of an evolution. Modern data allow us to predict that, in a few billion years, the conditions prevailing in the solar system will not be the same as they are today. Like other stars whose transformations have been recorded until they reached their final stage, it is possible to predict an end to the Sun. The second verse quoted above (sura 36, verse 38) referred to the Sun running its course towards a place of its own.
Modern astronomy has been able to locate it exactly and has even given it a name, the Solar Apex: the solar system is indeed evolving in space towards a point situated in the Constellation of Hercules (alpha lyrae) whose exact location is firmly established; it is moving at a speed already ascertained at something in the region of 12 miles per second.

All these astronomical data deserve to be mentioned in relation to the two verses from the Qur'an. Since it is possible to state that they appear to agree perfectly with modern scientific data.

Minggu, 27 Agustus 2017

Islam di Padjajaran


Sejarah Islam di Padjajaran. Karena belum pernah ada sebelumnya seminar yang membahas hal tersebut secara spesifik. Alhasil, masyarakat lebih percaya kepada Mitos dan Cerita Legenda bahwa yang menyebarkan Islam untuk pertama kalinya di Tatar Sunda adalah Prabu Walang Sungsang, anak dari Sri Baduga Maharaja Prabu Siliwangi, padahal Islam telah diterima di tanah Sunda puluhan tahun lebih awal.
Berbicara mengenai Sejak Kapan dan Siapa Tokoh yang mengembangkan Ajaran Rasullulah Muhammad di Kerajaan Sunda Pakuan Pajajaran tentunya tidak akan tuntas dalam sehari, namun Abah Eman berusaha menyampaikan sejarah tersebut dengan ringkas dan menarik antusias hadirin yang datang. Diakui oleh Budayawan Sunda Abah Eman Sulaeman bahwa untuk mendapatkan kajian keterangan yang otentik tentang Sejarah suatu daerah, tidak dapat hanya menggali dari opini masyarakatnya atau kirata (kira-kira nyata).

Sejarah Sunda, seperti uraian perjalanan sejarah Kerajaan Pakuan Padjajaran khususnya,telah berbaur dengan berbagai bentuk cerita dan pendapat yang kirata, seperti Cerita Rakyat, Legenda, Cerita Pantun, Wawacan, Dongeng, yang semuanya memiliki Pesona Cerita atau Penggambaran Konotatif yang tentunya tidak sebenarnya terjadi dan perlu diterjemahkan kembali makna kejadian sebenarnya yang hendak disampaikan si pengarang cerita agar memiliki bobot, setidaknya secara otentik dapat diterima.
Perjalanan panjang sejarah Islam di Padjajaran tidak terlepas dengan Sistem Agama dan Pemerintahan yang berlaku sebelumnya. Kerajaan Sunda Pakuan Padjajaran merupakan kerajaan paling berpengaruh di tanah Sunda kala Agama Islam masuk ke Nusantara. Mengacu kepada Prasasti Batutulis, Kabantenan, dan Kawali, Kerajaan Tarumanagara sebagai penguasa Tatar Sunda sebelumnya mengalami kemunduran di akhir abad ke-7 M. Inilah yang mengakibatkan lahirnya kerajaan-kerajaan kecil yang memisahkan diri dari Tarumanagara, yaitu Kerajaan Kuningan, Galuh, dan Sunda.
Kerajaan Sunda didirikan sejak tahun 669 Masehi oleh Maharaja Tarusbawa dan pada saat diwastunya Sri Baduga Maharaja Ratu Haji di Pakuan Pajajaran Sri Sang Ratu Dewata atau Ratu Dewataprana, atau Pamanahrasa, yang lebih dikenal sebagai Sri Baduga Maharaja Prabu Siliwangi, kerajaan-kerajaan kecil tersebut menyatu menjadi satu pemerintahan Kerajaan Sunda Pakuan Padjajaran yang beribukota di Bogor.
https://nasionalisrakyatmerdeka.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/foto263.jpg?w=300&h=240
"..Prasasti Batutulis.." bukti kebesaran Prabu Siliwangi
39 tahun lamanya masa pemerintahan Prabu Siliwangi (1482 – 1521), dan selama itu Kerajaan Sunda Pakuan Padjajaran memiliki 6 buah Pelabuhan, yaitu Banteun, Pontang, Cigeude, Tangerang, Kalapa, dan Cimanuk. Sistem kerajaan Agraris-Maritim yang diterapkan pada masa itu menyebabkan kemajuan pesat di bidang Perdagangan Internasional.
Lembaga pengajaran keagaamaan ada dua yaitu Kabuyutan dan Kapendetaan. Ditetapkan pula lahan-lahan khusus yang disebut Lemah Larangan, Jayagiri, dan Nusa Sembada. Lemah Larangan adalah tempat pengajaran Keagamaan tapi keamanannya langsung di bawah tanggung jawab Raja. Oleh Prabu Siliwangi, Ajaran dari leluhur dijunjung tinggi sehingga tidak pernah kedatangan musuh, baik berupa laskar maupun penyakit batin atau isu-isu yang mengoncangkan kewibawaan kerajaan. Senang sejahtera di utara, barat dan timur.
Dalam masa itu, dikenal kepercayaan sinkretisme Syiwa, Budha, dan Sunda Wiwitan sebagai kepercayaan yang dominan di masyarakat Sunda. Prabu Siliwangi pada Tahun 1337 M di Sunda Sembawa, selain membangun kabuyutan juga mendirikan Binayapanti, tempat para wiku serta putra-putri raja dan petinggi kerajaan mempelajari ilmu Sanghiyang Siksa (perundangan), Sanghiyang Darma (kepemimpinan), dan Jati Sunda (kepribadian bangsa serta etika moral).
https://nasionalisrakyatmerdeka.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/foto217.jpg?w=300&h=240
Kemudian Sang Maharaja membangun Gugunungan dekat Bukit Samaya sebagai tempat penyelenggaraan upacara keagamaan. Gugunungan itu adalah Bukit Badigul, dan Bukit Samaya adalah gunung Gadung (Samaya=Gadung), kedua lokasi tersebut kini berada di daerah Rancamaya Bogor. Bukit Badigul menjadi tempat perabuan raja-raja Sunda Pakuan Padjajaran, Bukit Badigul menjadi tempat perabuan Prabu Siliwangi pada akhir hayatnya (di sinilah nilai khusus Rancamaya). Mengingat kebesaran nama Siliwangi dan ketaatan beliau pada ajaran leluhur, maka Prabu Siliwangi adalah sosok pemimpin yang memiliki etika moral yang tinggi. Etika moral Jati Sunda yang dijiwai oleh etnis Sunda selama ratusan tahun sebelumnya menjadikan etnis Sunda sebagai etnis yang jujur, terbuka, dan cinta damai.
Budayawan Sunda Eman Sulaeman membuka tabir masuknya Islam ke Padjajaran, tidaklah melalui peperangan, seperti paham sebagian mitos yang tersebar. Adalah salah bahwa Penyerbuan Pasukan Cirebon, Demak, dan Bantenlah awal masuknya Islam ke Padjajaran. Atau legenda tentang pengejaran Walang Sungsang (Kian Santang) yang ingin mengislamkan ayahandanya, Prabu Siliwangi.

Agama Islam masuk ke Tatar Pasundan diperkirakan pada abad ke-13, Islam masuk ke Tatar Pasundan diterima dengan terbuka oleh Prabu Siliwangi. Beliau merestui Agama Islam berkembang di Padjajaran dan mengizinkan bagi masyarakat Padjajaran yang meyakininya untuk menganut ajaran Islam. Ajaran baru tersebut masuk pertama kalinya ke Tatar Sunda oleh Ki Brata Legawa seorang Pangeran Kerajaan Sunda Galuh yang kaya raya dan berprofesi sebagai saudagar. Yang mana beliau telah melakukan banyak perjalanan ke Mancanegara di antaranya adalah : Maladewa, India,sampai akhirnya Tanah Suci Mekkah. Sebutan terkenalnya untuk sawaka Sunda saat itu adalah Haji Purwa Galuh. Selain berdakwah Ki Brata Legawa juga sering menyedekahkan hartanya sehingga menarik simpati masyarakat. Keturunan Ki Brata Legawa salah satunya adalah Syekh Quro yang mendirikan pesantren di Karawang pada abad ke 15 M, pesantren yang mengajarkan dasar-dasar Islam serta ilmu Al-Quran.
Nyatalah bahwa masuknya Islam ke Tatar Pasundan tidak dengan kekerasan. Selain itu pula, salah satu tonggak sejarah bagi Islam di Tanah Pasundan adalah saat Prabu Siliwangi memperistri Subang Larang yang beragama Islam, putri dari Ki Gedeng Tapa, juga santri dari Pesantren Syekh Quro, sebagai Ratu Padjajaran. Dari Permasuri Subanglarang lahirlah Walang Sungsang, Raja Sangara, dan Rara Santang. Walang Sungsang sendiri pada akhirnya menjadi mubaligh dan memimpin kadatuan di Cirebon.

Menurut pemaparan Budayawan Sunda Ajaran Islam tidaklah mengakibatkan kemunduran kejayaan Padjajaran pada masa itu. Bahkan kerajaan Padjajaran sempat pula menjalin hubungan bilateral dengan bangsa Portugis dibidang politik, ekonomi, dan pertahanan pada tahun 1521 dengan Surawisesa (Putra Prabu Siliwangi dari Permaisuri Kentringmanik) yang oleh Portugis disebut Ratu Samiam (Ratu Sanghiyang). Yang memperkuat kedaulatan Kerajaan Sunda Pakuan Padjajaran secara Internasional.Demikian pentingnyalah Sejarah Islam digali dan dipelajari oleh para mubaligh, umat muslim masa kini.

sejarah perkembangan Islam. Napak tilas diadakan untuk meredam isu keberadaan Islam radikal yang makin marak. NU ingin meluruskan itu semua, agar masyarakat kembali ke ajaran Islam yang diterima dan diyakini para orangtua dahulu, yaitu Ajaran Islam yang Menghargai BUDAYA LOKAL dengan tanpa meninggalkan inti ajaran Islam itu sendiri. 


Al-Muradi(11th century) 
See Abu Jafar al-Muradi for the Egyptian grammarian.

Alī Ibn Khalaf al-Murādī, (11th century) Al-Andalus, was a Mechanical engineer and author of the unique technological manuscript entitled Kitāb al-asrār fī natā'ij al-afkār (The Book of Secrets in the Results of Thoughts).[1] It was copied and used at the court of Alfonso VI of León and Castile in Christian Spain in the 11th century.[citation needed]
The manuscript provides information about a "Castle and Gazelle Clock" and many other forms of complicated clocks and ingenious devices. Al-Muradi was a contemporary ofAbū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī.[citation needed]
In 2008, the Book of Secrets of al-Muradi has been published in facsimile, translated in English/Italian/French/Arabic and in electronic edition with all machines interpreted in 3D, by the Italian study center Leonardo3.
He also devised, with help from al-Zarqali, the universal astrolabe.[2] Both al-Muradi and al-Zarqali's design were included in the Libros del Saber (1227) of Alfonso X of Castile.[3]
During the period of Islamic-Arabic extraordinary activity in Science and Technology (9th-13th century), there are some recorded contributions to the area of Automatic Control mainly in the development of water clocks using float valve regulators, different level controls using float valves or combination of syphons and the development of On-Off control. In this short survey, Professor Dr Mohamed Mansour, former Professor of Control Engineering At ETH Zürich surveys the subject by investigating the words of Banu Musa, Al-Muradi, Ridhwan al-Sa'ati and Al-Jazari.
During the period of Islamic-Arabic extraordinary activity in Science and Technology (9th-13th century), there are some recorded contributions to the area of Automatic Control mainly in the development of water clocks using float valve regulators, different level controls using float valves or combination of syphons and the development of On-Off control.
The Islamic Arabic Automatic Control Technology had as a basis the Greek Technology of two scientists, namely Philon of Byzantium (Rhodes and Alexandria) of the second half of the third century BCE (his book, the Pneumatica was translated from Arabic into French and German in 1902 and 1899 respectively), and Heron of Alexandria of the first century CE (his book the Peumatica was translated into English and German in 1851 and 1899 respectively).
It is noted in Greek technology the language is Greek but the scientists need not be Greek as in the case with Islamic-Arabic technology.
It is known that there are hundreds of thousands of manuscripts dealing with Islamic Science and Technology to be edited and it is assumed that some of them deal with technology. This report is based on the following references [1-6].
Figure 2: Al-Biruni's Mechanical Calendar (British Library, MS OR 5593). (Source).
1. Automatic Control in Water Clocks
1.1. "The work of Archimedes on the Building of Clocks"
This is an Arabic book whose Arabic author is called pseudo-Archimedes with the earliest reference to it in theFihrist of Al-Nadim (died 955 CE). From the literary style and the technique of its drawings, this clock book seems to be an Islamic work based on Greek-Roman technology as mentioned in [1]. This clock used a float level regulator, which makes it a feedback device. A large float drove the whole apparatus. The description of the complicated clock is so thorough that it could be reconstructed almost completely. This book did have considerable influence on the two great chorological books of Al-Jazari and Ibn Al-Sa'ati and other Arabic authors like Ibn Al-Akfani.
Figure 3a-b: The Rear Perspective View.
1. 2. "Al-Jami bayna Al-Ilm wa 'l-'amal al-nafi' fi sina'at al-hiyal by Al-Jazari
This book [5] was written in 1206. Al-Jazari is from Al-Jazira, the area between Tigris and Euphrates. Sarton[6] mentions: "This treatise is the most elaborate of its kind and may be considered the climax of this line of Muslim achievement". "The distinctive feature of the book is its practical aspect. The book is rich in minute description of various kinds of devices. Hill maintains: "It is impossible to over-emphasize the importance of Al-Jazari`s work in the history of engineering. Until modern times, there is no other document from any cultural area that provides a comparable wealth of instructions for the design, manufacture and assembly of machines. Al-Jazari did not only assimilate the techniques of his non-Arab and Arab predecessors, he was also creative. He added several mechanical and hydraulic devices. The impact of these inventions can be seen in the later designing of steam engines and internal combustion engines, paving the way for automatic control and other modern machinery. The impact of Al-Jazari`s inventions is still felt in modern contemporary mechanical engineering [3]."
Hill [4] translated the book into English in 1974. A German translation was made in 1915. The chapter on water clocks describes 10 water clocks, the first two of them use float valve regulators. The various time-indicating mechanisms are propelled by a float. The other clocks are regulated differently. Al-Jazari mentions an old machine, which he inspected, in which a musical automaton was powered by a vertical water wheel. In his comments on this machine, he clearly implies that he knew how to control the speed of such a wheel by means of an escapement.
Figure 4: Miniature depicting an automat from a copy of al-Jazari's Kitab fi marifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. MS copied in Syria or Egypt in 1315 CE. Leaf: 31.5 × 22 cm. Copied by Farrukh ibn Abd al-Latif. Opaque watercolor, ink and gold on paper, H: 30.2 W: 21.7 cm. (Source).
1.3. "Book on the Construction of Clocks and their Use" by Ridwan b.Muhammad Al-Saati Al-Khurasani (1203)
This book describes the monumental water clock built by Ridwan`s father at the Jayrun gate in Damascus. A German translation was made in 1915. A large float drives the clock, float valve regulator and the device for varying the length of the hours are incorporated.
1.4. "The Book of Secrets about the Results of Thoughts" by Al-Muradi of Andalusia (11th century)
This is the earliest description in Arabic of water clocks. This book deals with water clocks and other devices using automata. The treatise consists of 31 models of which 5 are essentially very large toys similar to clocks, in that automata are caused to move at intervals, but without precise timing. The prime movers are water wheels that can be overshot or undershot depending on the intensity of flow. There are nineteen clocks, all of which record the passage of the temporal hours by the movements of automata. The power came from large outflow clepsydras provided with concentric siphons. This power was transmitted to automata by very sophisticated mechanisms, which included segmental and epicyclic gears and the use of mercury. These are highly significant features; they provide the first known examples of complex gearing used to transmit high torque, while the adoption of mercury reappears in European clocks from the thirteenth century onwards.
Unfortunately, the only known manuscript of this work is badly defaced and it is not possible to understand exactly how the clocks worked. A weight driven clock with a mercury escapement appears in "Libros del Saber", a work written in Spanish at the court of Alfonsos of Castille about 1277 and consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works. A novel feature in this treatise is the use of mercury in balances. Al-Zarquali built two large water clocks on the banks of the river Tagus at Toledo in 11th century [2].
Figure 5: The musical robot band designed by al-Jazari. (Source).
1.5. "Kitab Mizan Al-Hikma (The Book on the Balance of Wisdom)", Al-Khazini (1121-1122)
The eighth treatise of this work described two steelyard clepsydras. The main one, called the Universal Balance, was designed for 24-hour operation, and consisted of an iron beam divided into unequal arms by a fulcrum. An outflow clepsydra equipped with a syphon was suspended on the end of the short arm, and two movable weights, one large and one small, were suspended from the long arm, which was graduated into scales. As water discharged from the clepsydra, the weights were moved along the scale to keep the beam in balance. At any moment the hour of the day could be to minutes from the position of the small one.
Figure 6: Two pages from the manuscript of Al-Muradi Kitab al-asrar fi nata'ij al-afkarpreserved at the Biblioteca Medicea-Laurentiana in Florence, Italy, MS Or 152. Note the damaged state of the manuscript. Source: Eduard Farré Olivé, La clepsidra de las Gacelas del manuscrito de relojes de Al-Muradi, Arte y Hora, March-April 1998, N°. 128-H11, pp. 10-18.
2. Automatic Control of Banu Musa
Kitab al-Hiyal (The Book of Ingenious Devices) is a mechanical writing by Banu Musa bin Shakir (9th century). The three sons of Musa organized translation and did original work in "Bayt Al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) which was the science academy in Baghdad, the greatest scientific institution since the Museum and Library of Alexandria. Banu Musa were supporters of the translation movement which gathered momentum as that important epoch of the Islamic scientific awakening reached fruition in the 9th century. They extended their patronage to Thabit Ibn Qurra, to Hunayn Ibn Ishaq and to many other translators and scholars. They left more than 20 works which are known, including the seminal engineering book "Kitab Al-Hiyal" translated into English by Donald Hill in 1979 and parts of it into German by Wiedemann and Hauser in 1918 and Hauser in 1922. The book was edited in Arabic by Ahmad Al-Hassan in 1981.
Figure 7a-b: Reconstruction of the clock of Al-Muradi by Spanish scholars. A general view with its side opening revealing the working of the mechanism. Source: Eduard Farré Olivé , De Mensura Temporis. (1ª parte) "Arte y Hora" n. 123-H6, March-April 1997, pp. 8-16 (2ª parte) "Arte y Hora" n. 127-H10, January-February 1998, pp. 10-17; and Eduard Farré Olivé, La clepsidra de las Gacelas del manuscrito de relojes de Al-Muradi.
The written Arabic heritage in mechanical technology begins with the Banu Musa book. It is possible they knew Heron's Mechanics written in Alexandria in the first century and translated by Qusta Ibn Luqa at the time of Banu Musa. Hero‘s other books may have been known to the brothers, for he enjoyed great fame among Arabic scholars in the 10th century.
Banu Musa describe one hundred ingenious devices. Hill identified twenty five devices resembling the ones of Heron's and Philon's books. There exist also other parts of the Banu Musa machines which resemble certain elements in Hero and Philo work. There are Banu Musa machines which bear no resemblance to either Hero or Philo. These include the fountains and dredging machine designed to salvage submerged objects from the bottom of rivers and seas and so on. Banu Musa made use primarily of the principles of the science of hydrostatics and aerostatics. They used automatic valves, delayed-action systems and their application of the principles of automatic control testify of creative mentality. Hill notes the use of crankshafts for the first time in the history of technology.
In two models, they used a mechanism similar to the modern crankshaft, thus outstripping by 500 years the first description of the crankshaft in Europe. Mayr [1] mentions that they used syphons, float valves, Philon`s oil lamp, water wheels, etc. Some control systems work with nonmoving parts combining the principle of Philon`s oil lamp with some cleverly arranged syphons. They have contributions in technological refinements and new applications. They install throttling valves directly in the pipe requiring no constant force to keep them closed. These appear first in the book of Banu Musa. Also they introduce improvements on Philon`s oil lamp by ingenious combination of syphons added to the original system. Most important is the use of On-Off control with upper and lower limit for the controlled variable. Systems of this class are widely used in modern technology. The float valve used by Banu Musa, Al-Jazari and other Arabic engineers emerges again in the middle of the 18th century in Europe and in England.
Figure 8: Diagram of a selftrimming lamp from Kitab al-hiyal (Book of ingenious mechanical devices) by Banu Musa, preserved in the Granger Collection in New York. (Source).
References
[1] Otto Mayr, The Origins of Feedback Control. M.I.T. Press, 1970.
[2] Ahmad Y.Al-Hassan & Donald R.Hill, Islamic Technology. Cambridge University Press and Unesco, 1986.
[3] Donald R. Hill, Arabic Water Clocks. University of Aleppo, 1981.
[4] Banu Musa, The Book of Ingenious Devices. An Annotated Translation of the Treatise of Banu Musa by Donald R. Hill. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979; reprinted in Islamabad, 1989. The Arabic text of this treatise was edited by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan: Banu Musa, Kitab Al-Hiyal, Aleppo: Publications of the Institute for the History of Arabic Science, University of Aleppo, 1981.
[5] Al-Jazari, Al-Jami' bayna al-'ilm wa-'l-'amal al-nafi' fi sina'at al-hiyal (A Compendium on the Theory and Practice of the Mechanical Arts) by Ibn Al-Razzaz Al-Jazari (1206), edited by Ahmad Y.Al-Hassan, University of Aleppo,1979.
[6] George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Philadelphia, 1931, vol. 2.
* Professor Dr. Mohamed Mansour was Emeritus Professor of Control Engineering at Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland from September 1968 until September 1993. His fields of interest are control systems, especially stability theory and digital control, stability of power systems, and digital filters. He has published about 200 scientific papers, edited 6 books and supervised 47 Ph.D Students. See Prof. Dr.Mohamed Mansour: Publications and Curriculum Vitae; Mansour, Mohamed and Prof. Dr. Mohamed Mansour.

Kamal al-Din Hasan ibn Ali ibn Hasan al-Farisi or Abu Hasan Muhammad ibn Hasan (1267– 12 January 1319, long assumed to be 1320)) (Persian: كمال‌الدين فارسی‎) was a prominent Persian born in Tabriz,Iran. He made two major contributions to science, one on optics, the other on number theory. Farisi was a pupil of the great astronomer and mathematician Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, who in turn was a pupil of Nasir al-Din Tusi.
 more from Wikipedia



Alī Ibn Khalaf al-Murādī
Ali Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi was a Mechanical engineer and author of the treatise "The Book of Secrets about the Results of Thoughts". This treatise is the earliest description in Arabic of water clocks. This book deals with water clocks and other devices using automata. The treatise consists of 31 models of which 5 are essentially very large toys similar to clocks, in that automata are caused to move at intervals, but without precise timing. The prime movers are water wheels that can be overshot or undershot depending on the intensity of flow. There are nineteen clocks, all of which record the passage of the temporal hours by the movements of automata. The power came from large outflow clepsydras provided with concentric siphons. This power was transmitted to automata by very sophisticated mechanisms, which included segmental and epicyclic gears and the use of mercury. These are highly significant features; they provide the first known examples of complex gearing used to transmit high torque, while the adoption of mercury reappears in European clocks from the thirteenth century onwards.
Unfortunately, the only known manuscript of this work is badly defaced and it is not possible to understand exactly how the clocks worked. A weight driven clock with a mercury escapement appears in "Libros del Saber", a work written in Spanish at the court of Alfonsos of Castille about 1277 and consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works. A novel feature in this treatise is the use of mercury in balances. Al-Zarquali built two large water clocks on the banks of the river Tagus at Toledo in 11th century.

 

 

 

Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi 1236-1311

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Iranian scholar
Qutb al-Din Shirazi
Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.
Born
1236 AD
Kazerun
Died
February 7, 1311 AD
Tabriz
Jurisprudence
Main interest(s)
Notable work(s)
Almagest, The Royal Present,Pearly Crown, etc
Influenced by
Influenced
Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236 – 1311) (Persian: قطب‌الدین محمود بن مسعود شیرازی) was a 13th-century Persian polymath[1] and poetwho made contributions to astronomy, mathematics, medicine,physics, music theory, philosophy and Sufism.

Biography

He was born in Kazerun in October 1236 to a family with a tradition of Sufism. His father, Zia' al-Din Mas'ud Kazeruni was a physician by profession and also a leading Sufi of the Kazeruni order. Zia' Al-Din received his Kherqa (Sufi robe) from Shahab al-Din Omar Suhrawardi[citation needed]. Qutb al-Din was garbed by the Kherqa (Sufi robe) as blessing by his father at age of ten[citation needed]. Later on, he also received his own robe from the hands of Najib al-Din Bozgush Shirazni, a famous Sufiof the time[citation needed]. Qub al-Din began studying medicine under his father. His father practiced and taught medicine at the Mozaffari hospital in Shiraz. After the passing away of his father (when Qutb al-Din was 14), his uncle and other masters of the period trained him in medicine. He also studied the Qanun (the Canon) of the famous Persian scholar Avicenna and its commentaries. In particular he read the commentary ofFakhr al-Din Razi on the Canon of Medicine and Qutb al-Din raised many issues of his own. This led to his own decision to write his own commentary, where he resolved many of the issues in the company of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.
Qutb al-Din lost his father at the age of fourteen and replaced him as the ophthalmologist at the Mozaffari hospital in Shiraz. At the same time, he pursued his education under his uncle Kamal al-Din Abu'l Khayr and then Sharaf al-Din Zaki Bushkani, and Shams al-Din Mohammad Kishi. All three were expert teachers of the Canon of Avicenna. He quit his medical profession ten years later and began to devote his time to further education under the guidance of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi. When Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the renowned scholar-vizier of the Mongol Holagu Khan established the observatory of Maragha, Qutb al-Din Shirazi became attracted to the city. He left Shiraz sometime after 1260 and was in Maragha about 1262. In Maragha, Qutb al-din resumed his education under Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, with whom he studied the al-Esharat wa'l-Tanbihat ofAvicenna. He discussed the difficulties he had with Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on understanding the first book of the Canon of Avicenna. While working in the new observatory, studied astronomy under him. One of the important scientific projects was the completion of the new astronomical table (zij). In his testament (Wasiya),Nasir al-Din al-Tusi advises his son il-a-Din to work with Qutb al-Din in the completion of the Zij.
Qutb-al-Din's stay in Maragha was short. Subsequently, he traveled to Khorasan in the company of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi where he stayed to study under Najm al-Din Katebi Qazvini in the town of Jovayn and become his assistant. Some time after 1268, he journeyed to Qazvin, Isfahan, Baghdad and later Konya in Anatolia. This was a time when the Persian poet Jalal al-Din Muhammad Balkhi (Rumi) was gaining fame there and it is reported that Qutb al-Din also met him. In Konya, he studied the Jam'e al-Osul of Ibn Al-Athir with Sadr al-Din Qunawi. The governor of Konya, Mo'in al-Din Parvana appointed him as the judge of Sivas and Malatya. It was during this time that he compiled the books the Meftā al-meftāh, Ekhtiārāt al-moaffariya, and his commentary on Sakkāki. In the year 1282, he was envoy on behalf of the Ilkhanid Ahmad Takudar to Sayf al-Din Qalawun, the Mamluk ruler of Egypt. In his letter to Qalawun, the Ilkhanid ruler mentions Qutb al-Din as the chief judge. Qutb al-Din during this time collected various critiques and commentaries on Avicenna's Canon and used them on his commentary on the Kolliyāt. The last part of Qutb al-Din's active career was teaching the Canon of Avicenna and the Shefa of Avicenna in Syria. He soon left for Tabriz after that and died shortly after. He was buried in the Čarandāb cemetery of the city.
Shirazi identified observations by the scholar Avicenna in the 11th century and Ibn Bajjah in the 12th century as transits of Venus and Mercury.[2] However, Ibn Bajjah cannot have observed a transit of Venus, as none occurred in his lifetime.[3]
Qutb al-Din had an insatiable desire[1] for learning, which is evidenced by the twenty-four years he spent studying with masters of the time in order to write his commentary on the Kolliyāt. He was also distinguished by his extensive breadth of knowledge, a clever sense of humor and indiscriminate generosity.[1] He was also a master chess player and played the musical instrument known as the Rabab, a favorite instrument of the Persian poet Rumi.

Works

Mathematical

·  Tarjoma-ye Tarir-e Oqlides a work on geometry in Persian in fifteen chapters containing mainly the translation of the work Nasir al-Din Tusi, completed in November 1282 and dedicated to Moʿin-al-Din Solaymān Parvāna.
·  Risala fi Harkat al-Daraja" a work on Mathematics

Astronomy and Geography

a manuscript copy of Shirazi's al-Tuhfa al-Shahiya, 15th century
·  Etiārāt-e moaffari It is a treatise on astronomy in Persian in four chapters and extracted from his other work Nehāyat al-edrāk. The work was dedicated to Mozaffar-al-Din Bulaq Arsalan.
·  Fi arakāt al-dahraja wa’l-nesba bayn al-mostawi wa’l-monani a written as an appendix to Nehāyat al-edrāk
·  Nehāyat al-edrāk - The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens (Nehāyat al-edrāk fi dirayat al-aflak) completed in 1281, and The Royal Present (Al-Tuhfat al-Shahiya) completed in 1284. Both presented his models for planetary motion, improving on Ptolemy's principles.[4] In his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, he also discussed the possibility of heliocentrism.[5]
·  Ketāb faʿalta wa lā talom fi’l-hayʾa, an Arabic work on astronomy, written for Ail-al-Din, son of Nasir al-Din Tusi
·  Šar Takera nairiya on astronomy.
·  Al-Tufa al-šāhiya fi’l-hayʾa, an Arabic book on astronomy, having four chapters, written for Moammad b. adr-al-Saʿid, known as Tāj-al-Eslām Amiršāh
·  *all moškelāt al-Majesi a book on astronomy, titled all moškelāt al-Majesi

Philosophical

·  Dorrat al-tāj fi orrat al-dabbāj Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi's most famous work is the Pearly Crown (Durrat al-taj li-ghurratt al-Dubaj), written in Persian around AD 1306 (705 AH). It is an Encyclopedic work on philosophy written for Rostam Dabbaj, the ruler of the Iranian land of Gilan. It includes philosophical outlook on natural sciences, theology, logic, public affairs, ethnics, mystiicsm, astronomy, mathematics, arithmetics and music.
·  Šar ekmat al-ešrāq Šay Šehāb-al-Din Sohravardi, on philosophy and mysticism of Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi and his philosophy of illumination in Arabic.

Medicine

·  Al-Tufat al-saʿdiyah also called Nuzhat al-ukamāʾ wa rawżat al-aibbāʾ, on medicine, a comprehensive commentary in five volumes on the Kolliyāt of the Canon of Avicenna written in Arabic.
·  Risāla fi’l-bara, a medical treatise on leprosy in Arabic
·  Risāla fi bayān al-ājat ila’l-ibb wa ādāb al-aibbāʾ wa waāyā-hum

Religion, Sufism, Theology, Law, Linguistics and Rhetoric and others

·  Al-Enteāf a gloss in Arabic on Zamakhshari's Qurʾan commentary, al-Kaššāf.
·  Fat al-mannān fi tafsir al-Qorʾān a comprehensive commentary on the Qurʾan in forty volumes, written in Arabic and also known by the title Tafsir ʿallāmi
·  āšia bar ekmat al-ʿayn on theology; it is a commentary of ekmat al-ʿayn of Najm-al-Din ʿAli Dabirān Kātebi
·  Moškelāt al-eʿrāb on Arabic syntax
·  Moškelāt al-tafāsir or Moškelāt al-Qorʾān, on rhetoric
·  Meftā al-meftāhá, a commentary on the third section of the Meftā al-ʿolum, a book on Arabic grammar and rhetoric by Abu Yaʿqub Seraj-al-Din Yusof Skkaki Khwarizmi
·  Šar Motaar al-oul Ebn ājeb, a commentary on Ebn ājeb’s Montaha’l-soʾāl wa’l-ʿamal fi ʿelmay al-oul wa’l-jadwal, a book on the sources of law according to the Malikite school of thought
·  Sazāvār-e Efteā, Moammad-ʿAli Modarres attributes a book by this title to Qub-al-Din, without providing any information about its content
·  Tāj al-ʿolum A book attributed to him by Zerekli
·  al-Tabera A book attributed to him by Zerekli
·  A book on ethnics and poetry, Qub-al-Din is also credited with the authorship of a book on ethics in Persian, written for Malek ʿEzz-al-Din, the ruler of Shiraz. He also wrote poetry but apparently did not leave a divan (a book of poems)
Shirazi's Tomb in Tabriz, Charandab
Qutb al-Din was also a Sufi from a family of Sufis in Shiraz. He is famous for the commentary on Hikmat al-ishraq of Suhrawardi, the most influential work of Islamic Illuminist philosophy.

 


Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi 952

Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi was an Arab mathematician, who was active in Damascus[1] and Baghdad.[2] As his surname indicates, he was a copyist of Euclid's works. He wrote the earliest surviving book on the positional use of the Arabic numerals, Kitab al-Fusul fi al-Hisab al-Hindi (The Arithemetics of Al-Uqlidisi) around 952.[3]It is especially notable for its treatment of decimal fractions, and that it showed how to carry out calculations without deletions.
While the Persian mathematician Jamshīd al-Kāshī claimed to have discovered decimal fractions himself in the 15th century, J. Lennart Berggrenn notes that he was mistaken, as decimal fractions were first used five centuries before him by al-Uqlidisi as early as the 10th century.[2]
Al-Uqlidisi is a mathematician who is only known to us through two manuscripts on arithmetic, Kitab al-fusul fi al-hisab al-Hindi and Kitab al-hajari fi al-hisab. Despite this he is a figure of some importance and has prompted an interesting scholarly argument among historians of science.
The manuscript of the Kitab al-fusul fi al-hisab al-Hindi which has survived is a copy of the original which was made in 1157. An English translation of this work has been published by Saidan [4]. The manuscript gives al-Uqlidisi's full name on the front page as well as the information that he composed the text in Damascus in 952-53. In the introduction al-Uqlidisi writes that he travelled widely and learnt from all the mathematicians he met on his travels. He also claimed to have read all the available texts on arithmetic. Other than being able to deduce a little of al-Uqlidisi's character from his writing, we have no other information on his life.
The Kitab al-fusul fi al-hisab al-Hindi of al-Uqlidisi is the earliest surviving book that presents the Hindu system. In it al-Uqlidisi argues that the system is of practical value [4]:-
Most arithmeticians are obliged to use it in their work: since it is easy and immediate, requires little memorisation, provides quick answers, demands little thought ... Therefore, we say that it is a science and practice that requires a tool, such as a writer, an artisan, a knight needs to conduct their affairs; since if the artisan has difficulty in finding what he needs for his trade, he will never succeed; to grasp it there is no difficulty, impossibility or preparation.
This treatise on arithmetic is in four parts. The aim of the first part is to introduce the Hindu numerals, to explain a place value system and to describe addition, multiplication and other arithmetic operations on integers and fractions in both decimal and sexagesimal notation. The part second collects arithmetical methods given by earlier mathematicians and converts them in the Indian system. For example the method of casting out nines is described.
The third part of the treatise tries to answer to the standard type of questions that are asked by students: why do it this way ... ?, how can I ... ?, etc. There is plenty of evidence here that al-Uqlidisi must have been a teacher, for only a teacher would know understand the type of problem that a beginning student would encounter.
The fourth part has considerable interest for it claims that up to this work by al-Uqlidisi the Indian methods had been used with a dust board. A dust board was used because the methods required the moving of numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded. The dust board allowed this in the same sort of way that one can use a blackboard, chalk and a blackboard eraser. However, al-Uqlidisi showed how to modify the methods for pen and paper use.
Al-Uqlidisi's work is historically important as it is the earliest known text offering a direct treatment of decimal fractions. It is here that the scholarly argument referred to above arises. At one time it was thought that Stevin was the first to propose decimal fractions. Further research showed that decimal fractions appeared in the work of al-Kashi, who was then credited with this extremely important contribution. When Saidan studied al-Uqlidisi's Kitab al-fusul fi al-hisab al-Hindi in detail he wrote [6]:-
The most remarkable idea in this work is that of decimal fraction. Al-Uqlidisi uses decimal fractions as such, appreciates the importance of a decimal sign, and suggests a good one. Not al-Kashi(d. 1436/7) who treated decimal fractions in his "Miftah al-Hisab", but al-Uqlidisi, who lived five centuries earlier, is the first Muslim mathematician so far known to write about decimal fractions.
Following Saidan's paper, some historians went even further in attributing to al-Uqlidisi the complete credit for giving the first complete description and applications of decimal fractions. Rashed, however, although he does not wish to minimise the importance of al-Uqlidisi's contribution to decimal fractions, sees it as [2]:-
... preliminary to its history, whereas al-Samawal's text already constitutes the first chapter.
The argument depends on how one interprets the following passage in al-Uqlidisi's treatise. He explains how to raise a number by one tenth five times [4]:-
... we want to raise a number by its tenth five times. We write down this number as usual; write it down again below moved one place to the right; we therefore know its tenth, which we add to it. So was have added its tenth to this number. We put the resulting fraction in front of this number and we move it to the unit place after marking it [with the ' sign he uses for the decimal point]thus. We add its tenth and so on five times.
Saidan (writing in [1]) sees in this passage that al-Uqlidisi has fully understood the idea of decimal fractions, saying that earlier authors:-
... rather mechanically transformed the decimal fraction obtained into the sexagesimal system, without showing any sign of comprehension of the decimal idea. ... In all operations where powers of ten are involved in the numerator or the denominator, [al-Uqlidisi] is well at home.
On the other hand Rashed sees this passage rather differently [2]:-
... unlike al-Samawal, al-Uqlidisi never formulates the idea of completing the sequence of powers of ten by that of their inverse after having defined the zero power. That said, in the passage just quoted, three basic ideas emerge whose intuitive resonance may have misled historians; what they thought was a theoretical exposition was merely understood implicitly, and, as a result, they have overestimated the author's contribution to decimal fractions.
The two points of view are almost impossible to decide between since what we are looking at is the development of the idea of decimal fractions by different mathematicians, each contributing to its understanding. To take a particular text as the one where the idea appears for the first time in its entirety must always be a somewhat arbitrary decision. There is no disagreement on the fact that al-Uqlidisi made a major step forward.


A second common system was the base-60 numeration inherited from the Babylonians via the Greeks and known as the arithmetic of the astronomers. Although astronomers used this system for their tables, they usually converted numbers to the decimal system for complicated calculations and then converted the answer back to sexagesimals.
The third system was Indian arithmetic, whose basic numeral forms, complete with the zero, eastern Islam took over from the Hindus. (Different forms of the numerals, whose origins are not entirely clear, were used in western Islam.) The basic algorithms also came from India, but these were adapted by al-Uqlīdisī (c. 950) to pen and paper instead of the traditional dust board, a move that helped to popularize this system. Also, the arithmetic algorithms were completed in two ways: by the extension of root-extraction procedures, known to Hindus and Greeks only for square and cube roots, to roots of higher degree and by the extension of the Hindu decimal system for whole numbers to include decimal fractions. These fractions appear simply as computational devices in the work of both al-Uqlīdisī and al-Baghdādī (c. 1000), but in subsequent centuries they received systematic treatment as a general method. As for extraction of roots, Abūʾl-Wafāʾ wrote a treatise (now lost) on the topic, and Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) solved the general problem of extracting roots of any desired degree. Omar’s treatise too is lost, but the method is known from other writers, and it appears that a major step in its development was al-Karajī’s 10th-century derivation by means of mathematical induction of the binomial theorem for whole-number exponents—i.e., his discovery that
During the 10th century Islamic algebraists progressed from al-Khwārizmī’s quadratic polynomials to the mastery of the algebra of expressions involving arbitrary positive or negative integral powers of the unknown. Several algebraists explicitly stressed the analogy between the rules for working with powers of the unknown in algebra and those for working with powers of 10 in arithmetic, and there was interaction between the development of arithmetic and algebra from the 10th to the 12th century. A 12th-century student of al-Karajī’s works, al-Samawʿal, was able to approximate the quotient (20x2 + 30x)/(6x2 + 12) as
and also gave a rule for finding the coefficients of the successive powers of 1/x. Although none of this employed symbolic algebra, algebraic symbolism was in use by the 14th century in the western part of the Islamic world. The context for this well-developed symbolism was, it seems, commentaries that were destined for teaching purposes, such as that of Ibn Qunfūdh (1330–1407) of Algeria on the algebra of Ibn al-Bannāʿ (1256–1321) of Morocco.
Other parts of algebra developed as well. Both Greeks and Hindus had studied indeterminate equations, and the translation of this material and the application of the newly developed algebra led to the investigation of Diophantine equations by writers like Abū Kāmil, al-Karajī, and Abū Jaʿfar al-Khāzin (first half of 10th century), as well as to attempts to prove a special case of what is now known as Fermat’s last theorem—namely, that there are no rational solutions to x3 + y3 = z3. The great scientist Ibn al-Haytham (965–1040) solved problems involving congruences by what is now called Wilson’s theorem, which states that, if p is a prime, then p divides (p − 1) × (p − 2)× 2 × 1 + 1, and al-Baghdādī gave a variant of the idea of amicable numbers by defining two numbers to “balance” if the sums of their divisors are equal.
However, not only arithmetic and algebra but geometry too underwent extensive development. Thābit ibn Qurrah, his grandson Ibrāhīm ibn Sinān (909–946), Abū Sahl al-Kūhī (died c. 995), and Ibn al-Haytham solved problems involving the pure geometry of conic sections, including the areas and volumes of plane and solid figures formed from them, and also investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from conic sections. Ibrāhīm ibn Sinān, Abu Sahl al-Kūhī, and Ibn al-Haytham used the ancient technique of analysis to reduce the solution of problems to constructions involving conic sections. (Ibn al-Haytham, for example, used this method to find the point on a convex spherical mirror at which a given object is seen by a given observer.) Thābit and Ibrāhīm showed how to design the curves needed for sundials. Abūʾl-Wafāʾ, whose book on the arithmetic of the scribes is mentioned above, also wrote on geometric methods needed by artisans.
In addition, in the late 10th century Abūʾl-Wafāʾ and the prince Abū Nar Manurstated and proved theorems of plane and spherical geometry that could be applied by astronomers and geographers, including the laws of sines and tangents. Abū Nar’s pupil al-Bīrūnī (973–1048), who produced a vast amount of high-quality work, was one of the masters in applying these theorems to astronomy and to such problems in mathematical geography as the determination of latitudes and longitudes, the distances between cities, and the direction from one city to another.


Al-Khazini  1115–1130

This article is about the 12th century scientist. For the 10th century astronomer and physician, see Abū Ja'far al-Khāzin.
Abu al-Fath Abd al-Rahman Mansour al-Khāzini or simply Abu al-Fath Khāzini (Arabic: أبو الفتح الخازني, Persian: ابولفتح خازنی) (flourished 1115–1130) was a Muslim astronomerof Persian Greek ethnicity from Merv, then in the Khorasan province of Persia (located in today's Turkmenistan). Merv was known for its literary and scientific achievements.[1]

Muslim scientist
Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini
Title
Al-Khazini
Born
11th century
Died
12th century
Ethnicity
Era
Creed
Main interest(s)
Influenced by[show]

Life]

Al-Khazini was a slave in Marw.[2] He was the pupil of Umar Khayyam.[2] He got his name from his master al-Khanzin. His master is responsible for his education in mathematics and philosophy.[1][2] Al-Khazini was known for being a humble man. He refused thousands of Dinar for his works, saying he did not need much to live on because it was only his cat and himself in his household.[1]Al-Khazini is one of the few Islamic astronomers to be known for doing original observations.[1] His works are used and very well known in the Islamic world, but very few other places around the world acknowledge his work.[1]

Achievements[

Al Khazini seems to have been a high government official under Sanjar ibn Malikshah and the sultan of the Seljuk Empire. He did most of his work in Merv, where they are known for their libraries.[1] His best-known works are "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom", "Treatise on Astronomical Wisdom", and "The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar".[1]
"The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" is an encyclopedia of medieval mechanics and hydrostatics composed of eight books with fifty chapters.[1] It is a study of the hydrostatic balance and the ideas behind statics and hydrostatics, it also covers other unrelated topics.[1] There are four different manuscripts of "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" that have survived.[1] The balance al-Khazini built for Sanjar’s treasury was modeled after the balance al-Asfizari, who was a generation older than al-Khazini, built.[1] Sanjar’s treasurer out of fear destroyed al-Asfizari’s balance; he was filled with grief when he heard the news.[1] Al-Khazini called his balance "combined balance" to show honor towards Al-Asfizari.[1] The meaning of the balance was a "balance of true judgment".[1] The job of this balance was to help the treasury see what metals were precious and which gems were real or fake.[1] In "The Book of the Balance of Wisdom" al-Khazini states many different examples from the Koran ways that his balance fits into religion.[1] When al-Khazini explains the advantages of his balance he says that it "performs the functions of skilled craftsmen", its benefits are theoretical and practical precision.[1]
The "Treatise on Astronomical Wisdom" is a relatively short work.[1] It has seven parts and each part is assigned to a different scientific instrument.[1] The seven instruments include: a triquetrum, a dioptra, a "triangular instrument," a quadrant, devices involving reflection, an astrolabe, and simple tips for viewing things with the naked eye.[1] The treatise describes each instrument and their uses.[1]
"The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar" is said to have been composed for Sultan Sanjar, the ruler of Merv and his balance was made for Sanjar’s treasury.[1] The tables in "The Astronomical Tables for Sanjar" are tables of holidays, fasts, etc.[1] The tables are said to have the latitudes and longitudes of forty-three different stars, along with their magnitudes and (astrological) temperaments.[1] It is said that al-Khazini’s observations for this work were probably done in Merv in various observatories with high quality instruments.[1]
He is Abu Al-Fath `Abd al-Rahamn Al-Khazin, or Al-Khazini: a man of wisdom, an astronomer and an engineer. Of Greek origin, he grew under the care of his master, Ali Al-Khazin al-Marwazi and studied in Marw city of Khurasan where he learnt from leading figures of astronomy, mathematics and physics. Thus, he gained expertise in those sciences while not yet a free man. He evoked the admiration and astonishment of many when he came out with his book, Meezan Al-Hikmah, which was a marvel in the fields of mechanics, physics and hydrostatics. Alongside these sciences, he was also interested in astronomy and he determined the direction of the Qiblah in most Muslim states.
Al-Khazini stands as an authority in physics for all ages. He even surpassed Ibn al-Haytham who had worked out the speed of light. Below:A page from Al-Khazini’s book, Mizan Al-Hikmah, showing that the magnitude of weight of a small body of any substance is in the same ratio to its volume as the magnitude of weight of a larger body of the same substance to its volume.
He based his determination of the Qiblah on his readings from Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Beiruni. Most historians of science are unanimous that Al-Khazini stands as an authority in physics for all generations, that he even surpassed his teachers – Ibn Sina(Avicenna), Al-Beiruni and Ibn al-Haytham (who was the first to attempt the discovery of the speed of light) – all of whom had discussed gravity, albeit not very scientifically and accurately. He outstripped them, in general, in this discipline as well, and particularly in Dynamics and Hydrostatics. His own theories in these two fields are taught to this day. In astronomy, he excelled in making tables known as the Sinjari tables. He devoted most of his time to the study of Hydrostatics and improved the instrument that was designed by Al-Beiruni which determined the specific weight of liquids: an undertaking in which he attained a high degree of accuracy. He spoke during his studies about the resistance which bodies immersed in liquids generally encounter.

Extract from Al-Khazini's geographical table. Source: David A. King, World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science. Leiden: Brill/London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1999, p. 72


He arrived at a formula that determines the abstract weight of masses composed of two different materials. He preceded Torshilly in referring to air as matter with mass, and stating that air has mass and capillary action similar to liquids. He also stated that weights of immersed masses are less than their real weights. He also explained that the Archimedes’ principle applies to gases in addition to liquids; such revelations paved the way for the invention of the barometer, air-vacuums, and pumps. He also wrote on theories of light, and calculated the deflection of light upon its passage through air. He made great efforts in his work on specific weights and gravity and demonstrated experimentally how all parts of the body direct their descent towards the centre of the earth due to gravity; showing that the variation in gravitational pull on different segments of the descending body result from the variation in the distance between the respective segments and the centre of the earth. He based his inferences on experiments and scientific calculations. Thus, he preceded Newton by several centuries, though not acknowledged by the West. He authored many books including the Mizan Al-Hikmah which came in eight volumes. It spoke about hydrostatics, weights, theories on gravity, Archimedes’ and Menelaus’s views on hydrostatics, specific weights of different materials, and astronomy. It solved problems, stated exercises and listed the specific weights of different materials in tabulated form. Al-Khazini discussed the relation between the speed at which a body falls to the distance and time it takes; he gave that in a formula for discovering which scientists in the West – like Galileo, Newton, and others – claimed credit several centuries later. His other books include those on conical instruments, Sinjari astronomical tables etc.
He was a man of fine Islamic character, an ascetic and a self-reliant person. When his fame spread, the ruler of the time sent him 1000 Dinars. He accepted ten and returned the rest saying, “I have no need for the rest. My entire expenses are three Dinars per year.” A princes also sent him 1000 Dinars, but he refused all of it.
(Sources: Tatimmah Mizan Al-Hikmah Al-I`lam (Zarkali), Mu`jam al-Mu’allifieen, Mafaheem al-Islamiyyah - MS)

Muslim Scientists and Thinkers–Abdal Rahman al-Khazini

Abdal Rahman al-Khazini was a Muslim of Greek origin who was brought to Merv as a slave by the Seljuk king after his victory over the Byzantine Emperor. 
His master, al-Khazini, gave him his name and the best possible education in mathematics, philosophy, science and astronomy. 
Al-Khazini was also a pupil of the famous Persian poet and mathematician Omar Khayyám (d 1131 CE) who was living in Merv at that time. Very  little is known about his life, but it is known that he was a man who refused rewards and handout sent to him by the wife of the emir.
He preferred to live a simple life on a  meager income which he earned himself.  The exact date of his death is also not known, but it is believed that he died by the middle of 12th century.
Al-Khazini was a great physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher and an alchemist. He is better known for his contributions to physics.
His treatise; Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (The Book of  Balance of Wisdom) written in four volumes, remained an important part of  physics among the Muslim scientists. The first volume deals with his predecessor’s theories of centers of gravity, including al-Biruni, al-Razi and Omar Khayam. In this book al-Khazini draws attention to the Greek philosopher’s failure to differentiate clearly between force, mass and weight. He explains  how the weight of the air  and  its  density decrease with altitude. By looking at his predecessor’s science, al-Khazini provides crucial records of their contributions that could have remained unknown or lost.
The remaining treatises deal with hydrostatics, most particularly the determination of specific gravities. Al-Khazini goes to extreme lengths in describing the equipment necessary to obtain accurate results. He was very careful in the preparation of his equipment and materials while doing his experiment.
He carried  out various  experiments with his balances with rigorous attention to scientific accuracy. His interest  to  determine the specific gravities of precious metals and alloys had some commercial purposes in mind. With the accurate value of specific gravity he could determine the purity of gold and silver without any chemical treatment. To determine the specific gravity of a substance, its weight has to be known in air and water, and the volume of air and water displaced, so most researchers used water balances in their experiments.
Using the same instruments  Al-Khazini made repeated experiment with several metals and gemstones. He also measured the specific gravities of many other substances like salt, clay, liquids and amber–a total of fifty one substances.
He developed his own hydrostatic balance, and specialized balances which was extremely precise. He could find the weight of an object on the microgram level, a precision only surpassed in the 20th century.
In another experiment, he discovered that the density of water is greater nearer the earth’s center, which was proved by Roger Bacon two centuries later. Al-Khazini defines heaviness in traditional terms, he says in his book;
“A heavy body is one which is moved by an inherent force, constantly, towards the center of the world.  I mean that a heavy body is one which has a force moving it towards the central point, and constantly in the direction of the center, without being moved by that force in any different direction; and that the force referred to is inherent in the body” 
It appears that what al-Khazini meant by gravity, is both an idea similar to the modern concept of gravitational potential energy.  In any case, al-Khazini appears to have been the first to propose that the gravity of a body varies with its distance from the center of the Earth. In his first sense of the word gravity, the concept was not considered again, till five centuries later by Isaac Newton.
Al-Khazini contributions   in  astronomy includes a astronomical treatise Zij as-Sanjari or  ‘Sinjaric Tables’. In this treatise he gave a description of his construction of a 24 hour water clock designed for astronomical purposes which he invented. This was an early example of an astronomical clock. He computed the positions of 46 stars for the year  (1115-16 CE). and tables for the observation of celestial bodies at the latitude of Merv. His astronomical treatise was translated into Greek and was studied in the Byzantine Empire.
Al-Khazini’s book Risala fi’l-alat (Treatise on Instruments) consisted of seven chapters in which he has described about a number of highly specialized  and innovative mechanical devices. These instruments include dioptra, (a classical surveying instrument) triangular instruments, triquetrum, (an instrument to find altitude of heavenly bodies) quadrant, sextant and the astrolabe.
Al Khazini, no doubt was a great physicist and astronomer  of the middle age who made tremendous advancement in the field of physics and instrument-making. Charles Jillispe, editor of the Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography proclaimed him the greatest of any time.

KHASINI :Merv: History, Science and Learning
Merv, was a major oasis-city in Central Asia, on the historical Silk Road, located near today's Mary in Turkmenistan. Several cities have existed on this strategic site, which was significant for the interchange of trade, culture and politics. In the early Islamic period, Merv was the capital of the province of Khorasan, and in the 12th century it was the largest city in the world. The following article surveys some aspects of learning, science and history of Merv as an Islamic city between the 10th and the 13th century. A special focus is laid on the scholars and scientists of Merv, the greatest of whom was Abd Al-Rahman Al-Khazini. Besides being a gifted astronomer, he is the author of Kitab mizan al-hikma, an encyclopedia of mechanics structured about the theory and the practice of various kinds of balances, especially the universal balance, an extremely precise scientific instrument for measuring the weights of bodies and their specific gravities.
Figure 1: Map showing Merv at the heart of trade routes of the Islamic east and central Asia.
Merv is the city which dominated the province of Khorasan in today's Turkmenistan. Early Islamic geographers recorded a great economy based upon thriving farming and irrigation: a highly organised system of maintenance, a system of irrigation canals and a dam above the city with the supply of water regulated and measured by a metering device [1].
Under the Abbasids, Merv continued to be the capital of the East. The great prosperity of Merv belongs to the period dating from the 8th to the 13th century. [2]. In the latter half of the 10th century, when the geographer Al-Muqaddasi knew Merv, a third part of the suburbs wa already in ruins, and the citadel was in no better state; however, in the next century, the citadel gained in size and importance under the Seljuks[3]. By the 11th century, Merv was a great commercial centre of the Oriental type with a bazaar, traversed by two main streets, the centre of the market roofed by a dome, shops for artisans, money changers, goldsmiths, weavers, coppersmiths, and potters. It was an administrative and religious centre, containing mosques, madrasas, palaces, and other buildings [4]. The dome of the mausoleum of Sultan Sanjar, one such place, was of turquoise blue, and could be seen at a distance of a day's journey away [5].
One of Merv's trademarks was its textile products, silk produced in abundance, and also a school for its study. The region was also famed for its fine cotton and exports, of raw products and manufactured, sent to different lands [6]. Merv was one of the great emporia of the caravan routes between western and eastern Asia, including to China. This meant that gradually trade and urban activities became the source of wealth rather than agriculture [7].
Figure 2: Sultan Sanjar mausoleum in Merv, a World Heritage site. (Source).
Yaqut al-Hamawi, the famous geographer (d. 1229), spent two years studying in the many libraries of Merv which he admired [8]. According to him, there were ten wealthy libraries in the city around 1216-1218, two in the chief mosque and the remainder in the madrasas [9]. Yaqut was in Merv for three years, collecting the materials for his great geographical dictionary, for before the Mongol invasion the libraries of Merv were celebrated [10]. "Verily but for the Mongols I would have stayed and lived and died there", he writes, "and hardly could I tear myself away" [11]. Among others, he mentions the two libraries of the Friday mosque, namely the "Aziziyah" with 12,000 or so volumes, and the "Kamaliyah"[12]. There was also the library of Sharaf al-Mulk, in his madrasa, and that of the great Seljuk wazir Nizam al-Mulk [13]. Among the older libraries were those founded by the Samanids, and one in the college of the Umaydiyah; also that in the Khatuniyah College and that which had belonged to Majd al-Muluk [14].
Merv produced one of the earliest and greatest scientists of Islam, Ahmad ibn 'Abdallah al-Marwazi (Marwazi means from Merv) best known as Habash al-Hasib (the calculator), who flourished in Bagdad and died between 864 and 874. He was an astronomer under the Caliphs al-Ma'mun and al-Mu'ttasim [15]. Habash made observations from 825 to 835 and completed three astronomical tables, the best known being the mumtahin (tested) tables, which may be a collective work of al-Ma'mun's astronomers, for there was a whole team involved in observation at the court at the time [16]. Apropos of the solar eclipse of 829, Habash gives us the first instance of a determination of time by an altitude (in this case, of the sun); a method which was generally adopted by Muslim astronomers. He seems to have introduced the notion of "shadow," umbra (versa), equivalent to our tangent, and he compiled a table of such shadows which seems to be the earliest of its kind [17]. One of Habash's son, called Djafar was also a distinguished astronomer and instrument maker [18].
Figure 3: View from Merv, used in contemporary research. See Tim Williams, The landscapes of Islamic Merv, Turkmenistan: Where to draw the line?, outlining approaches for interpreting the Islamic city of Merv between the 8th and the 13th centuries, based upon aerial photographic and satellite imagery.
A lesser known scholar also from Merv is Al-Saghani, who was a mathematician and astronomer attached to the Buyid observatory in Baghdad [19]. In mathematics, he followed up the work of the Banu Musa, tackling the problem of trisecting the angle, which had preoccupied the ancient Greek [20]. He was particularly versed in mechanics, and constructed, if he did not invent, the instruments he used for his astronomical observations [21].
Also coming from Merv is Ibn Ahmad Al-Kharaqi. His name refers probably to the place Kharaq (or Kharak) near Merv and he too was called al-Marwazi. He died in Merv in 1138-1139. He was a mathematician, astronomer and geographer whose works included:
(1) Muntaha al-idrak fi taqsim al-aflak, the highest understanding on the division of spheres, (2) Kitab al-tabsira fi 'ilm al-hay'a, a shorter astronomical treatise improving on some problems treated in Ibn al-Haytham's astronomy;
(3) Al-risala al-shamila, the comprehensive treatise, concerning arithmetic; and
(4) Al-risala al- maghribiya (the Magribi treatise). The last two works have not survived [22].
Al-Kharaqi's most important work is the Muntaha (the first cited). It is divided into three discourses (maqalas) covering of
(1) the arrangement of spheres (tarkib al-aflak), their movements, etc.;
(2) the shape of the earth, and its subdivision into a part which is inhabited and another which is not, the differences in the ascendents (tali') and ascensions (matali') due to geographical positions;
(3) chronology or eras (tawarikh), conjunctions (qiranat), chiefly of Saturn and Jupiter, periods of revolution (adwar)—for example, dawr al-qiran or 'awd al-qiran (return of the conjunction) [23].
The Tabsira is shorter and covers essentially the same ground; however, it does not contain the elaborate description of the five seas which forms the second chapter of the second part of the Muntaha [24].
Al-Kharaqi developed the theory according to which planets are not supported by imaginary circles, rather by massive revolving spheres. That theory had been previously expounded by al-Khazin (not to be confounded with al-Khazini), and it found its way into Western Europe through Hebrew and Latin translations of Ibn al-Haytham's treatise Fi hay'at al-'alam [25].
Figure 4: Extract from Al-Khazini's geographical table. Source: David A. King, World-Maps for Finding the Direction and Distance to Mecca: Innovation and Tradition in Islamic Science. Leiden: Brill/London: Al-Furqan Islamic Heritage Foundation, 1999, p. 72.
The part of the Muntaha describing the five seas was edited and translated into Latin [26]. There are also details in German by the excellent Wiedemann  on the works of Al-Kharaqi[27].
Another scholar to come from Merv was a historian, his name al-Tamimi al-Sam'ani (that is, of the tribe of Sam'an, a branch of the tribe of Tamim), Taj al-Islam. He was born in Merv in 1113, travelled extensively in the Eastern Islamic world and died in Merv in 1166 [28]. He continued the annals of Baghdad begun by al-Khatib (second half of the 11th century). In 1155, he undertook an extensive study of Arabic patronymics (nisba) in eight volumes, which is of great historical and geographical interest. Apropos of the names of prominent persons he supplies biographical and topographical explanations, which had been collected by him in the course of his journeys, during which he had met for that very purpose a large number of learned men. His work called Kitab al-ansab is particularly valuable with regard to Persia, Transoxiana, and Central Asia, for which countries it is our principal and often only source of information[29]. The Kitab al-ansab is better known through an abridgment of it, theLubab, compiled by the renowned historian Ibn al-Athir; or through a further abridgment, the Lubb al-lubab, by al-Suyuti [30]. There is no complete edition of the Ansab, unfortunately, and traces of the work had to be found in Ibn al-Athir and al-Suyuti (second half of the 15th century) [31]. There are extracts and details in German on both the author and his work by Wüstenfeld [32].
Without a doubt, the greatest of all scholars to come from Merv was al-Khazini. Abderahman al-Khazini flourished ca. 1115-ca 1130 at Merv. He was a slave boy to whom his master gave the best education in mathematical and philosophical subjects. He became a mathematical practitioner under the patronage of the Seljuk court.
Of his life very little is known. He was very much an ascetic, refusing rewards and handed back 1000 Dinars sent to him by the wife of an Emir. He lived on 3 dinars a year [34].
Figure 5: Exert of the beginning of Kitab Mizan al-Hikma in the manuscript kept at the Russian National Library in St Petersburg, Khanikoff Collection, Codex 117, folio 1 verso
His accomplishments in astronomy can be summed up with his description of his construction of a 24-hour water clock designed for astronomical purposes and for his treatise Al-Zij al-Mu'tabar al-Sinjari(The esteemed Sinjaric tables), giving the positions of the stars for the year 1115/16 at the latitude of Merv [35]. Al-Khazini is, however, better known for his book Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (The Book of the Balance of Wisdom) [36], completed in 1121. This encyclopaedic treatise has remained a centrepiece of Muslim physics. Kitab Mizan al-Hikma was written for Sultan Sanjar's treasury by Al-Khazini, and has survived in four manuscripts, of which three are independent [37]. It studies the hydrostatic balance, its construction and uses along with the theories of statics and hydrostatics that lie behind it and other topics. It was partly translated and edited by the Russian envoy Khanikoff in the mid-19th century [38].
It is important to mention that the first of its eight chapters deal with the theories of centres of gravity, specific gravity and the steelyard theory of his predecessors' including al-Biruni, Al-Razi, 'Umar al-Khayam, Thabit ibn Qurra, al-Isfizari, alongside the Greek authors Archimedes and Euclid. Al-Khazini most particularly draws attention to the Greeks' failure to differentiate clearly between force, mass and weight, and shows awareness of the weight of the air, and of its decrease in density with altitude [39]. By looking at his predecessors' scientific legacy, al-Khazini provides crucial records of their contributions that could have remained unknown or lost [40].
Figure 6: Colourful diagram of Mizan al-Hikma (the balance of wisdom) designed by Al-Isfizari and Al-Khazini and described in detail by Al-Khazini in Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (515 H). This image was displayed in 2001 by Sam Fogg (www.samfogg.com) as part of an original manuscript that was being exhibited among its holdings. Since then, this manuscript is referred to among the holdings of the University of Pennsylvania: Lawrence J. Schoenberg Database of Manuscripts, MS LJS 386
A significant part of the book is devoted to hydrostatics, most particularly the determination of specific gravities. Al-Khazini goes to extreme length in describing the equipment necessary to obtain accurate results. His scrupulousness in the preparation of his equipment, materials employed, as well as carrying out varied applications of his balances make his book one of the best examples "of rigorous attention to scientific accuracy" [41]. His interest is devoted to the determination of the specific gravities of metals, precious stones and alloys with commercial purposes in mind, so as to determine the purity of various substances and to detect fraud. To determine the specific weight of a specimen, its weight has to be known in air and water, and the volume of air and water displaced by the specimen. Hence, most Muslim researchers used water balances in their experiments. Using the same instrument as al-Biruni, Al-Khazini made repeated trials with several metals and gemstones. He also measured the specific gravities of other substances such as salt, amber and clay, noting whether the substance sank or floated on water.
In all, he records the specific gravities of fifty substances that include precious stones, metals and liquids. The accuracy of such measures is impressive and is offered by Hill, together with modern values. Mieli sees the determination of specific weights by al-Biruni and al-Khazini as some of the most outstanding results obtained by the Muslims in experimental physics [42].

The strict definition for specific weight is given by al-Khazini:
"The magnitude of weight of a small body of any substance is in the same ratio to its volume as the magnitude of weight of a larger body (of the same substance) to its volume [43]."
Figure 7: Line drawing of the balance of wisdom or Al-Mizan al-Jami' (the universal balance) of al-Khazini as it was drawn by the publishers of Kitab Mizan al-Hikma in Hyderabad in 1358H/1940, p. 130.
As a student of statics and hydrostatics, Al-Khazini borrowed immensely from al-Biruni and al-Isfizari [44]. Al-Khazini also devotes a large space to the description of various balances by his predecessors, but the focus is on what he calls 'The Balance of Wisdom'. Al-Khazini's own balance of wisdom is a unique instrument. Although this balance owes much to Muzaffar b. Ismail al-Isfizari, al-Khazini added refinements which made it into an instrument that could perform the most accurate measurements[45]. Such accuracy is due to the length of the beam, the special method of suspension, the fact that the centre of gravity and the axis of oscillation were very close to each other, and of course to the very precise construction of the whole. With this, al-Khazini stated that he obtained an accuracy of 1 in 60,000. His uses of this balance were for varied purposes, from ordinary weighing to taking specific gravities, examining the composition of alloys, changing dirhams to dinars and many other transactions [46]. In all his processes, he moved the scales about until he obtained equilibrium. Al-Khazini in his descriptions gives particular focus to determining the proportions of two constituents in an alloy. Hall states that Al-Khazini's hydrostatic balance can leave no doubt that "as a maker of scientific instruments he is the greatest of any time [47]."
Figure 8: Diagram of the balance of wisdom drawn by H. Bauereiss in his dissertation under the direction of E. Wiedeman: Zur Geschichte des spezifischen Gewichtes im Altertum und Mittelalter. Erlangen, 1914, p. 31.
Al-Khazini also made many observations and propositions in his book which constitute some of the foundations of modern physics. Hence, he states:
"For each heavy body of a known weight positioned at a certain distance from the centre of the universe, its gravity depends on the remoteness from the centre of the universe. For that reason, the gravities of bodies relate as their distances from the centre of the universe [48]."
Al-Khazini was, thus, the first to propose the hypothesis that the gravities of bodies vary depending on their distances from the centre of the earth; this phenomenon was only discovered in the 18th century (six centuries after al-Khazini) after a certain development in the theory of gravitation[49].
Al-Khazini also found that there was greater density of water when nearer to the centre of the earth more than a century before Roger Bacon (1220-1294) propounded and proved the same hypothesis [50].
Figure 9a-b: Two views of the balance of wisdom as reconstructed by H. Bauereiss and F. Keller (1908-1911), rediscovered by M. Abattouy and Professor Jürgen Renn (director of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Berlin) in the Deutsches Museum in Munich in 2002 (item invent. Nr. 31116). © Max Planck Institut für Wissenschaftgeschichte, 2002. See Mohammed Abattouy, Muslim Heritage in Mechanics and Technology: Outline of a Program for Future Research.
The Muslims who were already facing the Crusades (1095-1291), suffered further invasions form the east, which devastated their eastern empire. In 1220, Genghis Khan and his hordes flattened the eastern parts of the Muslim land. In just one year the Mongols seized the most populous, the most beautiful, and the best cultivated part of the earth whose inhabitants excelled in character and urbanism [51]; and inflicted all ills on them. An army under Genghis's son Jagtai, captured and sacked Otrar, whilst another under Genghis himself, burned Bukhara to the ground, raped thousands of women, and massacred 30,000 men [52]. Samarkand and Balkh surrendered but suffered pillage, and wholesale slaughter; so much so that a century later Ibn Battuta (14th century) described these cities as still largely in ruins [53]. Through Khorasan, the Mongols ravaged every town on their march, placing captives in their vanguard, giving them the choice between fighting their fellow men in front, or being cut down from behind [54]. Amidst the toll of destruction was that of al-Jurjaniyah dam south of the Aral Sea, which diverted the River Oxus from its course and deprived the Aral Sea of water, causing it to nearly dry out centuries later [55].
Merv was captured and was burnt to the ground; its libraries were consumed in the conflagration. All the glories of the Merv libraries fell prey to the flames, which followed in the wake of the Mongol sack of this great city [56]. Ibn al-Athir tells that the invaders set on fire the Tomb of Sultan Sanjar with most of the mosques and other public buildings [57]. The city's inhabitants were allowed to march out through the gates with their treasures, only to be massacred. The total slaughter cost 1.3 million lives [58]. Ibn al-Athir wrote
"For several years, I put off reporting this event (of the Mongol invasion). I found it terrifying and felt revulsion at recounting it and therefore hesitated again and again. Who would find it easy to describe the ruin of Islam and the Muslims? … O would that my mother had never borne me, that I had died before and that I were forgotten! Though so many friends urged me to chronicle these events, I still waited. Eventually I came to see that it was no use not complying. The report comprises the story of a… tremendous disaster such as had never happened before, and which struck all the world, though the Muslims above all. If any one were to say that at no time since the creation of man by the Great God had the world experienced anything like it, he would only be telling the truth. In fact nothing comparable is reported in past chronicles… Those they (the Mongols) massacred, for a single city whose inhabitants were murdered numbered more than all the Israelites together. It may well be that the world from now until its end… will not experience the like of it again, apart perhaps from Gog and Magog. Dadjal will at least spare those who adhere to him, and will only destroy his adversaries. These (the Mongols), however, spared none. They killed women, men and children, ripped open the bodies of the pregnant and slaughtered the unborn. Truly: we belong to God and shall return to Him; only with Him is strength and power [59].'
Figure 10: Page from the Persian translation of Kitab Mizan al-Hikma.
When Merv was visited in the 14th century by Ibn Battuta, it was still in great ruin [60]. Mustawli also saw that it was still largely in ruins, and the sands had begun encroaching [61]. Hafiz Abru adds that the Mongols had broken down all the great dams and dykes, which under the Seljuks had grown in number, and had been carefully maintained, in order thus to regulate the irrigation of the oasis; now everything had lapsed into a desert swamp [62].
However, some Western historians praise the Mongols. Thus, Saunders, tells us:
`The Mongol massacres, genocide, perhaps arose from mixed motives of military advantage and superstitious fears. By massacres they hastened the surrender of other places and speeded the conquest. However merciless their rage for destruction, after a decent interval, they commonly permitted the rebuilding of the cities they had burnt and ruined'[63]
Rebuilding may have been permitted but many devastated places were still in ruins centuries later. Wiet et al. tell us that Genghis Khan's
‘means were still limited, but he had on his side the moderation and the deliberation of a great leader and, above all, a magnificent army, the exploits of whose horsemen, incomparable bowmen and seasoned warriors take their place in history and legend. [64]
Figure 11: Exert from the beginning of the edition and translation of Kitab Mizan al-Hikma by Nicholai Khanikoff: "Analysis and Extracts of Kitab Mizan al-Hikma, an Arabic Work on the Water-balance, written by al-Khazini in the Twelfth Century. By the Chevalier N. Khanikoff, Russian Consul-general at Tabriz, Persia." Journal of the American Oriental Society vol. 6 (1860): pp. 1-128.
Wiet and his group also make the point that:
`What legend portrays so exultantly, however, the chronicles reveal as a grievous ordeal for the city-dwellers of Asia. The Mongols, lagging behind the other barbarians of Asia in their development, did not know what to do with the towns. On the principle that only terror is profitable, only the steppe liveable and only the way to heaven valuable, they pillaged, destroyed and massacred. The list of their conquests is a litany of disaster: the marvellous cities of Bukhara, Samarkand, Nishapur, Baghdad and countless others were razed to the ground and their inhabitants slain. [65]'
They further argue that:
`The sword, however, fell only on those who offered resistance. Those who welcomed the Mongol as a liberator… escaped the terror. [66]'
However, most of the places that were devastated surrendered without a fight and it is a contradiction to say that only those who fought were slaughtered and then to agree that all the inhabitants, including women and children were slaughtered.
Ibn al-Athir: Kitab al-kamil; ed. K.J. Tornberg; 12 vols., Leiden; 1851-72.
Ibn Battuta: Voyages d'Ibn Battuta, Arabic text accompanied by French translation by C. Defremery and B.R. Sanguinetti, preface and notes by Vincent Monteil, I-IV, Paris, 1968, reprint of the 1854 edition.
Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa; translated and selected by H.A.R. Gibb; George Routledge and Sons Ltd; London, 1929.
C. E. Bosworth: "Merv"; Encyclopaedia of Islam; New Series; vol. 6; pp. 618-21.
J.L.E. Dreyer: A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler; Dover Publications Inc, New York, 1953.
W. Durant: The Age of Faith, Simon and Shuster, New York; 6th printing; 1950.
R.E. Hall: "Al-Khazini", in Dictionary of Scientific Biography; vol. VII, 1973: 335-51.
D.R. Hill: Islamic Science and Engineering; Edinburgh University Press; 1993.
Al-Khazini: Kitab Mizan al-Hikma, Hyderabad; partial English translation by N. Khanikoff (1860); "Analysis and extracts of Kitab mizan al-Hikma (book of balance of Wisdom), an Arabic work on the water balances, written by al-Khazini in the twelfth century,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 6:1-128; also Russian translation: by M.M. Rozhanskaya and I.S. Levinova, Al-Khazini. Kniga vesov midrosti,' Nauchnoye nasledstvo, Moscow, vol 6, 1983; pp 15-140.
G. Le Strange: The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate; Cambridge University Press; 1930.
A. Mieli: La Science Arabe et son rôle dans l'évolution mondiale, Leiden, E, J. Brill, 1966.
M. Meyerhof: "Science and Medicine", in The Legacy of Islam; edited by Sir T Arnold, and A. Guillaume; Oxford University Press; 1931.
J. Pedersen; The Arabic Book (1928) translated by Geoffrey French; Princeton University Press; Princeton, New Jersey (1984).
G. Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science; The Carnegie Institution; Washington; 1927 ff.
J.J. Saunders: The History of the Mongol Conquests; Routlege & Kegan Paul; London; 1971.
C. Schoy: Liber den Gnomonschatten und die Schattentafel; Hanover, 1923.
R.B. Sergeant: Islamic textiles up to the Mongol Conquest; Beirut 1972.
N. Smith: A History of Dams, The Chaucer Press, London, 1971.
B. Spuler: History of the Mongols; London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, p.31.
H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomer der Araber; 1900.
J. W. G. Wiet et al.: History of mankind; Vol. III: The Great Medieval Civilisations. Part Two: section two; Part three; Translated from the French. UNESCO; 1975.
References
[1] C. E. Bosworth: Merv; Encyclopaedia of Islam; New Series; vol. 6; pp. 618-21.p. 618.
[2] G. Le Strange: The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate; Cambridge University Press; 1930; pp. 401 ff.
[3] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 401.
[4] C. E. Bosworth: Merv; p. 619.
[5] For Merv topography, see G. Le Strange: Lands; op cit.; pp. 397-403.
[6] R.B. Sergeant: Islamic textiles up to the Mongol conquest; Beirut 1972; pp. 87-90.
[7] C. E. Bosworth: Merv; op cit.; p. 619.
[8] C. E. Bosworth: Merv; op cit.; p. 620.
[9] Yaqut al-Hamawi in J. Pedersen; The Arabic Book, New Jersey (1984), p. 128.
[10] G. Le Strange: The Lands; op cit.; p. 401.
[11] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 401-2.
[12] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 401-2.
[13] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 401-2.
[14] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 401-2.
[15] G. Sarton: Introduction to the History of Science; The Carnegie Institution; Washington; 1927 ff.; vol. I; p. 565.
[16] G. Sarton: Introduction; I; p. 565.
[17] G. Sarton: Introduction; I; p. 565.
[18] For more on Habbash and his accomplishments, consult: H. Suter: Die Mathematiker und Astronomer der Araber; 1900; pp. 12, 27; J.L.E. Dreyer: A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler; Dover Publications Inc., New York, 1953; C. Schoy: Liber den Gnomonschatten und die Schattentafel; Hanover, 1923.
[19] G. Wiet; V. Elisseeff; P. Wolff; and J. Naudu: History of Mankind; Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations; Translated from the French; George Allen & Unwin Ltd; UNESCO; 1975; p. 647.
[20] G. Wiet; V. Elisseeff; P. Wolff; and J. Naudu: History of Mankind; p. 647.
[21] G. Wiet; V. Elisseeff; P. Wolff; and J. Naudu: History of Mankind; p. 647.
[22] G. Sarton: Introduction; op cit.; vol. ii; pp. 204-5.
[23] G. Sarton: Introduction; ii; pp. 204-5.
[24] G. Sarton: Introduction; ii; pp. 204-5.
[25] G, Sarton: Introduction; ii; pp. 204-5.
[26] By C. A. Nallino: Albatenii opus astronomicum; vol. 1, 169-175, Milan.
[27] E Wiedemann: Beitrage zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, 20; Sitaungsber. der phys. med. Sozietat sur Erlang vol. 42, 72, 1910.
[28] G. Sarton: Introduction; op cit.; II; pp. 444-5.
[29] Sarton II; pp. 444-5.
[30] Sarton II; pp. 444-5.
[31] Sarton II; pp. 444-5.
[32] F. Wustenfeld: Geschichtschreiber der Araber; no. 54, P. 87, 1881.
[33] Well documented, though, by R.E. Hall, "Al-Khazini", in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography; vol. VII, 1973: 335-51.
[34] R.E. Hall: Al-Khazini.
[35] G. Sarton: Introduction; vol. 2; p.122.
[36] Al-Khazini: Kitab Mizan al-Hikma, Hyderabad; partial English translation by N. Khanikoff (1860); `Analysis and extracts of Kitab mizan al-Hikma (book of balance of Wisdom), an Arabic work on the water balances, written by al-Khazini in the twelfth century,' Journal of the American Oriental Society 6:1-128; also Russian translation: by M.M. Rozhanskaya and I.S. Levinova `Al-Khazini. Kniga vesov midrosti,' Nauchnoye nasledstvo, Moscow, vol 6, 1983; pp 15-140. See also R.E. Hall, Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography VII, 1973: 335-51.
[37] N.Khanikoff ed. p.16; in R.E. Hall: Al-Khazini; Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VII, 1973: pp.335-51.
[38] Al-Khazini: Kitab Mizan al-Hikma, Hyderabad; partial English translation by N. Khanikoff (1859); op cit.
[39] D.R. Hill: Islamic Science and Engineering; Edinburgh University Press; 1993, p. 61.
[40] D.R. Hill: op cit.; p. 61.
[41] D.R. Hill: Islamic, op cit., p 70.
[42] A. Mieli: La Science Arabe et son rôle dans l'évolution mondiale, Leiden, E, J. Brill, 1966, p. 101.
[43] D.R. Hill: Islamic science; op cit; 61.
[44] R.E. Hall: Al-Khazini: Dictionary, op cit.
[45] For details, see R.E. Hall: Al-Khazini.
[46] D.R. Hill: Islamic, op cit., p 69.
[47] R.E. Hall: Al-Khazini; Dictionary, op cit.
[48] Kitab Mizan al-Hikma, English translation, p.24. in M. Rozhanskaya: Statics, op cit., pp. 621-2.
[49] Rozhanskaya; p. 622.
[50] Max Meyerhof: Science and Medicine, in The Legacy of Islam; edited by Sir T Arnold, and A. Guillaume; Oxford University Press; 1931; p. 342.
[51] B. Spuler: History of the Mongols; London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1972, p. 31.
[52] W. Durant: The Age of faith, Simon and Shuster, New York; 6th printing; 1950; p.339
[53] Ibn Battuta: Voyages d'Ibn Battuta, Arabic text accompanied by French translation by C. Defremery and B.R. Sanguinetti, preface and notes by Vincent Monteil, I-IV, Paris, 1968, reprint of the 1854 edn; Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa; trsltd and selected by H.A.R. Gibb; George Routledge and Sons Ltd; London, 1929.
[54] W. Durant: The Age of faith, op cit.; Chapter XIV; p.339.
[55] N. Smith: A History of Dams, Chaucer Press, London, 1971; p 86.
[56] G. Le Strange: The Lands; op cit.; p. 402.
[57] G. Le Strange: The Lands; p. 402.
[58] Browne: in W. Durant: The Age offaith, op cit; p.339
[59] Ibn al-Athir: Kitab al-kamil; ed K.J. Tornberg; 12 vols; Leiden; 1851-72; vol 12; pp. 233-34.
[60] G. Le Strange: The Lands; op cit; p. 402.
[61] C. E. Bosworth: Merv; op cit; p. 621.
[62] G. Le Strange: The Lands; op cit; p. 402.
[63] J.J. Saunders: The History of the Mongol Conquests; Routlege & Kegan Paul; London; 1971. p. 56.
[64] J. W. G. Wiet et al: History ofmankind; Vol III:The Great Medieval Civilisations.Part Two: section two; Part three; Translated from the French. UNESCO; 1975.; p. 218
[65] J. W. G. Wiet et al: History ofmankind; p. 218
[66] J. W. G. Wiet et al: History ofmankind; p. 218.